NIUSI

part of the Education Reform Networks

Culture

• The Academic Achievement of Minority Students: Perspectives, Practices, and Prescriptions
  This book presents a collection of papers by educators and researchers who discuss various methods of improving minority student achievement.
• Toward a framework for preparing leaders for social justice
  Following the idea that putting social justice in educational practices, the authors proposed one possible framework for conceptualizing the preparation of leaders for social justice. To this end, three central questions guided this conceptualization: "What are the common themes in the literature and research on preparing leaders for social justice?"; "How can this framework serve as a guide for developing a course, set of courses, or an entire program toward preparing leaders to lead socially just schools?"; and "How can this literature and conceptualization inform future scholarship in administrator preparation?" This work included a review of 72 pieces of literature.
• Changing Selves: Multicultural Education and the Challenge of New Identities
  The author of this paper noted general challenges to this paradigm and uses data from an ethnographic study of a multiracial South African high school to critique multicultural education's treatment of identity, suggesting alternate theoretical paradigms, research strategies, and pedagogical practices after introducing identity and discussing how it has been used in multicultural education.
• Immigrant Children in Our Classrooms: Beyond ESL
  Strategies for supporting immigrant students include providing opportunities for self-expression, ensuring that all students see themselves reflected in the curriculum, providing translation for key events and documents, having teachers and staff that reflect student cultures, maintaining first-language skills, making special efforts to communicate with parents, and training students to support new peers. (TD).
• Acculturation of Vietnamese Students Living in or Away from Vietnamese Communities
  A t-test comparison of the acculturation levels of Vietnamese students living in or away from Vietnamese communities found higher overall acculturation for the former than for the latter group and no difference in the Value dimension of acculturation. Age and length of residency in the United States predicted acculturation.
• Creating a school environment for the effective management of cultural diversity
  The authors of this article examined the factors that affect the creation of a school environment for the effective management of cultural diversity as legislated for in the directive principles of the South African Schools Act of 1996 and the Schools Education Act of 1995. These two Acts determined that every person shall have the right to basic education and to equal access to schools and centers of learning.
• Creating Opportunities for Emerging Biliteracy
  The authors outline instructional principles upon which classroom practices in a fourth grade and in a kindergarten class are based that contribute to students' success, love of literacy, and emerging biliteracy. They discuss creating a socioculturally supportive learning environment that (1) affirms the cultural and linguistic resources of all students; (2) provides opportunities for inclusion and choice; and (3) involves parents in their children's learning.
• Critical Multiculturalism and Racism in Children's Literature
  Multicultural literature can help elementary students learn about cultural differences and racial bias and examine their prejudices and stereotypes. Critiques five children's books that emphasize the African American experience.
• Proactive Culturally Responsive Discipline
  This exemplar was produced by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt). The ways that schools intervene with students' challenging behavior have been historically "reactive, exclusionary, and ineffective." Traditional reactive discipline interventions include detention, suspension, and expulsion, all of which punish students by excluding them from school and limiting opportunity to receive positive support for behavior change.
• The Relationships between Situated Cognition and Rural Preservice Teachers' Knowledge and Understanding of Diversity
  The authors of this study examined the influence of situated knowledge embedded in 17 rural preservice teachers' autobiographies on their perspectives on diversity and future classroom practices. The authors found four emerged themes in interviews: situative cognition in rural contexts; cultural groups being together but existing apart; understanding group similarities and differences; and desire to teach in a small rural school.
• Addressing diversity in schools: Culturally responsive pedagogy
  This paper is one of the short practitioner-oriented pamphlets produced by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt). This practitioner brief deals with how to address educational needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students.
• Identifying the Prospective Multicultural Educator: Three Signposts, Three Portraits
  The author investigated how prospective teachers respond to social differences they encounter in educational discourse and public schools, identifying three signposts indicative of prospective multicultural educators (desiring change because of identifying with educational inequality, valuing critical pedagogy and multicultural social reconstructivist education, and wanting to understand educational inequality and its causes). The author presented data from observations and interviews with three teacher candidates.
• Multicultural Is Who We Are: Literature as a Reflection of Ourselves
  The author of this article discussed multicultural children's literature, the need for teachers to include multicultural children's literature in their teaching, how teachers can encourage pluralism, and evaluating and selecting multicultural literature titles. The author provided a selection of 17 multicultural books for use in the classroom.
• Reading Enhancement for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children through Multicultural Empowerment
  The author considers how learning to read can be difficult for Deaf students, but the task is even harder for Deaf minority students. She explores strategies to inspire an interest in reading and multicultural acceptance for Deaf and hearing students alike.
• Race, Culture, and Intelligence: An Interview with Asa G. Hilliard III
  In this article, there is an interview with Hilliard, a professor and expert on African culture. Hilliard spoke about the racial and cultural bias of standardized tests, multiculturalism, the concept of race, Afrocentric teaching, Ebonics, recruiting and retaining African-American teachers, and the future classroom.
• The Difficulty with Difference in Teacher Education: Toward a Pedagogy of Compassion
  In a course preparing student teachers for culturally diverse classrooms, passionate debate about racism and affirmative action revealed some students' entrenched resistance to "difficult knowledge" about oppression and white privilege. A pedagogy of compassion builds trust by recognizing the need to learn about other peoples' realities through acknowledging each person's subject position and point of departure.
• A Comprehensive Approach to Identifying and Addressing Issues of Disproportionate Representation.
  The authors focus on the effect of disproportionate representation of minority students. Evaluation on the educational performance of the students, identification of special education disability category, terms of educational classification are discussed.
• States' Requirements for Teachers' Preparation for Diversity
  The authors investigated the state teacher licensure requirements regarding diversity among the 50 states and District of Columbia. Overall, 67 percent of respondents required some level of diversity preparation in their teacher preparation programs, though specific requirements varied greatly from state to state.
• Issues of Discrimination in European Education Systems
  Examines difficulties and complexities in researching issues of discrimination in education across European countries as a first step in devising intercultural curricula. Discusses cross-national differences in terminology, in the ways in which research issues related to racism and interculturalism are formulated, and in the educational experience of children of immigrant and ex-colonial groups.
• "Once Upon a Time, a Very Long Time Ago Now, About Last Friday..." (Pooh Bear)
  This article argues that all cultures, and thus all families, operate, possibly even evolve, from out of the stories we are told while we are young. Adding to this idea the realization that all stories evolve from out of our cultures, the article suggests societies are shaped by the circularity and interaction of this combination.
• Globalization, Immigration, and Education: The Research Agenda
  Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco, in this paper, explored a paradigm for understanding immigration and education of immigrant children in the United States in the age of globalization.
• Special Services and Capeverdean Children: Establishing Culturally Relevant Connections
  Although Capeverdean Americans have been a part of the long multicultural history of the United States, little has been written within the professional literature about the special services needs of this cultural group. This article presents some important features of the culture and history of Capeverdeans that are relevant for the provision of culturally sensitive special needs services.
• On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Overrepresentation: What Do We Know? Where Do We Go?
  This OnPoint was developed by the National Institute for Urban School Improvement (NIUSI). It is about minority overrepresentation in U.S.
• Beyond Convictions: Interrogating Culture, History, and Power in Inclusive Education
  The article presents a critical exploration into various foundational conceptions and ideologies behind the inclusive schools movement in U.S. educational policy.
• Already Reading Texts and Contexts: Multicultural Literature in a Predominantly White Rural Community
  The authors examined how the inclusion of multicultural texts played out in one predominantly white rural community, focusing on repercussions of a key event that set off conflict in the community and describing how various interpretations of this event haped teachers' and community members' beliefs about the selection, interpretation, and teaching of multicultural literature.
• They Came to America. Fifth Grade Activity. Schools of California Online Resources for Education (SCORE): Connecting California's Classrooms to the World
  Since the early 1600s, millions of people have came to the United States from all over the world. At that time, Native American Indians inhabited the land, but they too had come from elsewhere 30,000 years earlier.
• Democratic Dispositions and Cultural Competency: Ingredients for School Renewal
  This article argues that the current school reform movement of high-stakes testing is misguided. It advocates that democratic dispositions and cultural competency be included in the major goals of schooling and proposes that the purpose of schooling should be determined through public deliberation within diverse communities.
• Newcomers and the Environment: Teaching Guide--Answer Key [and] ESL Textbook. Intermediate Level
  This intermediate level teaching guide, answer key, and English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) textbook package provides nine career and personal profiles of immigrants to the United States from a variety of countries presently working in the field of environmental protection and regulation. A glossary translates numerous more specialized, environment-related vocabulary into six languages other than English, including Russian, Hmong, Serbocroatian, Somali, Vietnamese, and Spanish.
• Teacher Education and the Cultural Imagination: Autobiography, Conversation, and Narrative
  Making culture a more central concept in the texts and contexts of teacher education is the focus of this book. It is a rich account of the author's investigation of teacher book club discussions of ethnic literature, specifically ethnic autobiography--as a genre from which teachers might learn about culture, literacy, and education in their own and others' lives, and as a form of conversation and literature-based work that might be sustainable and foster teachers' comprehension and critical thinking.
• The Power of Poetry
  Discusses poetry and the power it can have in elementary school classes. Considers why poetry is effective and the value of memorizing poems, and recommends multicultural titles for Blacks, Mexican Americans, Asian Americans that can help motivate children to read and write.
• How racial identity affects school performance.
  Today in the United States, race still affects where we live, pray, go to school, and socialize. It seems that for many years to come, race will undoubtedly continue to be a significant source of separation within our society.
• Representing the Inuit in Contemporary British and Canadian Juvenile Non-Fiction
  Examines text and pictorial representations of the Inuit in juvenile reference books and in geographical and historical juvenile non-fiction works. Finds continuing prevalence of a wide range of stereotypes.
• Preparing Teachers for Culturally Diverse Schools: Research and the Overwhelming Presence of Whiteness
  The author reviewed research studies on preservice teacher preparation for multicultural schools, particularly schools serving historically underserved communities, examining the effects of such strategies as recruiting and selecting students, cross-cultural immersion experiences, multicultural coursework, and program restructuring. Very little research actually examined which strategies prepared strong teachers.
• Promoting Multicultural Competence: A Cross-Cultural Mentorship Project
  Describes the Cross-Cultural Mentorship Project (CCMP), designed to increase the multicultural competency of Euro-American graduate counseling students and to serve the needs of Native American students as defined by Native American educators in an urban school district. The CCMP model supports mentors in their multicultural development through cultural consultants, academic coursework, and faculty supervision.
• Providing a Culturally Relevant Curriculum for Hispanic Children
  A culturally relevant curriculum lets Hispanic students learn from a familiar cultural base and connect new knowledge to their own experiences, thus empowering them to build on personal knowledge. Teachers must understand Hispanic culture to help students embrace the authentic information they receive.
• From Cradleboard to Motherboard: Buffy Sainte-Marie's Interactive Multimedia Curriculum Transforms Native American Studies
  Describes "Science: Through Native American Eyes," an interactive multimedia CD-ROM for middle school that is part of the Cradleboard Teaching Project developed by musician and teacher Buffy Sainte-Marie. The Cradleboard joins Native American tradition and high-tech innovation to explore the core curriculum of the National Content Standards.
• "White Privilege": Discrimination and Miscommunication--How It Affects/Effects Underrepresented Minority [Groups] on College Campuses
  The author discusses that thirty years after the enactment of civil rights legislation, the meaning of race has become a problem in the United States, largely because the legacy of centuries of white supremacy lives on. Monolithic white supremacy is over, but in a more concealed way, white power and privilege linger.
• Multicultural Competencies: A Guidebook of Practices
  Intended to benefit the entire counseling community, this guidebook demonstrates current multicultural competencies and successful delivery of services across the various professional counseling disciplines. Leading authorities offer concrete direction for effective multicultural counseling and reflect on what they have found to be the best practices in their specialty area.
• Embracing Race: Why We Need Race-Conscious Education Policy
  This book examines unsolved issues of race and education, emphasizing four major race-conscious education policies: bilingual education, multicultural curricula, affirmative action, and remedial education. It suggests that such policies are critical to fostering self-determination and personal autonomy in students who would otherwise receive a deficient education.
• Forging a Knowledge Base on English Language Learners with Special Needs: Theoretical, Population, and Technical Issues
  The authors of this article reported on a conference held by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt) concerning the topic of English Language Learners (ELLs). The article applies to teachers, families and policy makers interested in issues related to ELL students placed in Special Education.
• Cultural identity and teaching
  This paper is one of the brief practitioner oriented pamphlets called On Points produced by the National Institute for Urban School Improvement (NIUSI). We selected this particular On Point for all teachers who want to explore issues around teacher’s identity, culture, and teaching.
• From individual acquisition to cultural-historical practices in multicultural teacher education
  This article applies to all teacher educators, teachers, and pre-service teachers. Due to poor school performance among minority students in U.S.
• The social worlds of immigrant youth
  This article applies to all of you who know that your classes are filled or are soon to be filled with minority and immigrant students. In many states and schools districts this is the reality.
• Reflections on the "White Movement" in Multicultural Education
  Gary Howard responds to an essay that examined the role of whites in multicultural education and reviewed three books, critiquing five of the essay's assumptions (e.g., there is a white movement in multicultural education, attention to whites' role in multicultural education is very recent, and the focus on white identity development in multicultural education signals a shift away from equity pedagogy).
• The Linguistic Nature of Language and Communication
  The author discusses five recent books about language that address issues that arise in classrooms with an increasing number of diverse dialects and varied home languages. She discusses the complexities of language, misunderstandings in the Ebonics controversy, socioeducational issues, and classroom ideas for teachers.
• Teacher Education and Knowledge in "The Knowledge Society": The Need for Social Moorings in Our Multicultural Schools
  The authors considered the missing elements of race, class, gender, and power relations in the knowledge base for teacher education, suggesting a knowledge base for the missing ideas, especially in the area of questioning the effects of social, cultural, and historical movements and power relationships. The concept of social mooring is applied to make connections between academic discussions and social movements.
• Identity as an analytical lens for research in education
  Students' identities, academic engagement and learning are found to be closely connected. Since Erik Erikson, psychologists believe that identity formation of children and youth plays a central role in human development to have an intimate, satisfactory and productive life as adults.
• Multicultural Education and Technology: Perfect Pair or Odd Couple? ERIC Digest
  This digest examines how technology can support multicultural education. Multicultural education represents an approach to education and the teaching-learning process that is grounded in the democratic ideals of justice and equality.
• Breaking Racial Stereotypes by Reconstructing Multicultural Education
  Racial stereotypes and discrimination have destroyed many bright futures by limiting the possibilities of people of color in America. The author describes two initiatives that can be implemented in schools in order to help destroy negative images of race and reconstruct a more healthy foundation to build on: multiculturalism across the curriculum and multicultural awareness inservices for teachers.
• Organizational Culture and Its Impact on African American Teachers
  Studied how the organizational culture of schools and the cultural values of African American teachers affect the professional experience of these teachers in schools where they are in the minority. Results for seven teachers show that the majority established the work norms, resulting in a uniformity of rules and regulations with which people of color were expected to comply.
• Personal Transformations from the Inside Out: Nurturing Monocultural Teachers' Growth toward Multicultural Competence
  This article contends that the transformation of incoming preservice teachers into multiculturally competent, committed advocates for all students can be achieved through a combination of sound multicultural research and best practice, discussing mediated cultural immersions, the role of attending faculty in student growth, and the three phases of mediated cultural immersion. The origins of mediated cultural immersion programs are described.
• What Counts and How: Mathematics Teaching in Culturally, Linguistically, and Socioeconomically Diverse Urban Settings
  Examined urban teachers' efforts to embrace mathematics reform with culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse student populations, noting teachers' roles in providing accessible and valuable mathematical learning opportunities to diverse students. Data from two third grade teachers indicate that such work is complex.
• Addressing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Student Overrepresentation in Special Education: Guidelines for Parents
  Do bias or inappropriate practice play a role in the placement of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education? Is the representation of low-income students in special education programs larger than their representation in the school population at your child’s school? If the answers to these questions are yes, it is possible your child’s school may be facing a problem that is called “overrepresentation” in its special education programs. This paper is one of the practitioner-oriented briefs produced by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt).
• Reflections on Multicultural Education: A Teacher's Experience
  The author describes a high school-level multicultural course designed to challenge the predominantly white students to reflect upon system power inequities that benefitted many of them directly. Students engaged in social action projects, working with people unlike themselves in organizations that had social justice orientations.
• Multiculturalism and the Liberal Arts College: Faculty Perceptions of Pedagogy
  This is a qualitative study of faculty perceptions of the relationship between pedagogy, liberal education, and multiculturalism. The incompatibility of liberal education and multiculturalism ground this study along with the assertion that teaching and learning are central to the liberal education mission.
• Educational change over time? The sustainability and nonsustainability of three decades of secondary school change and continuity
  This article is about long-term systemic sustainable change and applies to all educational leaders and policy makers. Based on a comparative research students conducted in Canada and the United States (US), the authors presented a conceptual framework, methodological design, and key research findings from a Spencer Foundation-funded project of long-term educational change over time.
• Osborne. A Teacher's Handbook
  Osborne, located on the Isle of Wight, is almost entirely Victorian. It was designed, built, and furnished to the royal family's specifications (as a holiday home), and remains largely unaltered since Queen Victoria died in 1901.
• Multicultural Aspects of Parent Involvement in Transition Planning
  A survey of 308 African-American, Hispanic-American, Native-American, and European-American parents found that culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) parents are active in transition planning activities and, in some instances, their level of reported participation surpassed that of European-American parents. In contrast, 52 professionals described CLD parents as less involved.
• Essentializing Dilemma and Multiculturalist Pedagogy: An Ethnographic Study of Japanese Children in a U.S. School
  The author examined Japanese children's experiences at a U.S. elementary school, noting their teachers' pedagogical responses.
• Culturally Responsive Literacy Instruction
  This paper is one of the practitioner-oriented briefs produced by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt). It applies to all teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students who are interested in improving literacy instructions.
• Culturally Sensitive Strategies for Violence Prevention
  The author discusses cultural influences on behavior, theoretical assumptions about culturally diverse students, and culturally sensitive behavior management strategies that educators might consider in their efforts to curtail school violence. The strategies are intended to be culture-specific and culture-fair, to humanize school environments, and to encourage a sense of community and collective responsibility.
• Color-blind and color-conscious leadership: A case study of desegregated suburban schools in the USA
  This article is about cultural and linguistic diversity in educational leadership. Leadership and diversity are invariably connected, as U.S.
• Joining the Canadian Tribe: Building a Pluralistic Community in a B.C. School
  Immigrants often comprise most of the student body in urban Canadian schools. An elementary school in suburban Vancouver (British Columbia) provides sheltered classes and bilingual student partners for beginning English language learners.
• The Role of Empathy in Teaching Culturally Diverse Students: A Qualitative Study of Teachers' Beliefs
  The authors investigated teachers' beliefs about the role of empathy in their effectiveness with culturally diverse students. All respondents had participated in a multicultural professional development course geared to fostering culturally responsive practice.
• Diversity and Distrust: Civic Education in a Multicultural Democracy
  This book contends that diversity is often to be highly valued, but not always. It should be remembered that many forms of social and religious diversity are at odds with basic commitments to liberty, equality, and civic ideals.
• Working with Asian Parents and Families
  The authors discussed how teachers can enhance the experiences of their Asian American students, examining the importance of understanding Asian American parents and families. They included the following suggestions for working with Asian American parents and families; respect immediate and extended family members, understand diversity within Asian ethnic groups, consider parents' English proficiency, combat stereotypes, and encourage children to be bicultural and bilingual.
• One-Way Streets of Our Culture
  The author presented various definitions of culture and contemplates how much a culture can really be shared by those not born into it. The author asserted that, in international education, certain concerns must be raised, including: (1) a truly shared meaning depends upon a shared culture; (2) language plays a key role in understanding and developing a culture; and (3) teachers cannot help but support as well as challenge cultural values.
• Becoming Culturally Responsive Educators: Rethinking Teacher Education Pedagogy
  This paper is one of the short practitioner-oriented pamphlets produced by the National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt). This practitioner brief deals with designing teacher education programs (TEPs) that are mindful of student diversity.
• Emic and Etic Perspectives on Chicana and Chicano Multicultural Literature
  This study outlines historical perspectives on Chicano self-definition and identity. The authors examine emancipation in Chicano literature, and contrast the ideological positioning of two prominent authors deemed culturally relevant for "Hispanic" students.
• Multicultural Education in the U.S.: A Guide to Policies and Programs in the 50 States
  This book compiles information to investigate the presence and structure of multicultural education programs throughout the United States.
• Using Analogy To Develop an Understanding of Deaf Culture. A K-5 Curriculum
  Presents a model for a multicultural curriculum in which aspects of deaf culture are introduced to hearing students, noting the rationale for developing it. Discusses using analogy and empathy as catalysts for change in multicultural settings, describes a conceptual model of culture, and explains what deaf culture is.
• Multicultural Technology Integration: The Winds of Change Amid the Sands of Time
  This case study describes how a high school language arts teacher in a poor border community in southern New Mexico combined technology-based teaching strategies with multicultural elements to ensure learning and equitable access to technology for her minority students. The authors discuss bilingual and bicultural students, constructivist classrooms, and instructional flexibility.
• From Our Readers: Preparing Preservice Teacher Candidates for Leadership in Equity
  The author describes the importance of moving beyond identity labels like Black, Hispanic, or female to examine how gender intersects with other social memberships like race and class. By considering more inclusive, individualized ways of viewing multiculturalism, educators can forge more meaningful conversations with students about diversity and equity.
• School consultants working for equity with families, teachers, and administrators
  In this commentary, the authors summarized four major themes related to collaboration between school consultants and families with culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds : (a) Consultation with minority families involves empowering parents to navigate the public education system, integrating cultural considerations into consultation and intervention, and educating families and school personnel; (b) a participatory process that brings together families, school personnel, and community stakeholders is critical to achieving educational equity; (c) a cultural mediator is necessary to assist stakeholders in bridging cultural gaps and achieving shared meanings; and (d) educational equity is a complex, long-term process involving numerous individual, relational, organizational, community, and societal factors. The authors pointed out school consultants can play a central role in facilitating inquiry, negotiation, consensus building, and individual and systemic change to achieve cross-cultural collaboration and educational equity.
• Towards Equal Educational Opportunities for Asylum-Seekers
  The authors interviewed and surveyed staff, asylum-seeking/refugee English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) students, and ESOL students who came for other reasons at one British college, examining why the college's ESOL provision featured separate programs for the two groups. The authors discuss: the consequences of this divide; teacher discourses; alternative pedagogies; labeling of students; integrated provision; and multicultural education.
• Dating Violence among Chinese American and White Students: A Sociocultural Context
  A survey of 289 Chinese American and 138 White college students examined perceptions of and experiences with dating violence, gender role beliefs, and the influence of gender role beliefs on definitions and contextual justifications of dating violence. The sociocultural context of dating violence and implications for social work practice are discussed.
• Communities and Regions in Germany, Social Studies Grades 3-4. Update 2002
  This instructional package is targeted at students in grades 3 and 4. The package, presented to students as a travelogue, stresses basic map, globe, and geography skills, and presents case studies of communities (cities/towns/villages) across Germany.
• Inclusion as social justice: Critical notes on discourses, assumptions, and the road ahead
  This article applies to all teachers both in general education and special education who are to teach students with disabilities alongside their peers without disabilities. This is generally called inclusion.
• "Critical Perspectives on Project Head Start: Revisioning the Hope and Challenge," edited by Jeanne Ellsworth and Lynda Ames. Book Review
  Describes Ellsworth and Ames' edited book as an eclectic collection including historical, ethnographic, autobiographical, empirical, and self-reflective texts. Maintains that although the book is an important contribution to the literature by placing current practices into historical and social context, thereby leading to a more critical view of the revered program, the work omits an economic view.
• Anti-Bias Teaching To Address Cultural Diversity
  Multiculturalism must be integrated into classrooms and the curriculum, and it must be all-encompassing, taught through formal lessons and modeled and demonstrated at all times. The author describes how teachers can create an anti-bias curriculum and promote a multicultural or anti-bias classroom.
• Educational needs and barriers for refugee children in the United States: A review of the literature.
  Today around globe, 20.8 million refugees are striving to seek a safe place in more than 150 countries. Approximately, half of the refugee population in the world is younger than 18 years old.